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Portrait of a Learner 9-12

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Portrait of a Learner 9-12 > Factors > Long-term Memory

Long-term Memory

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Factor Connections

Hover to see how factors connect to Long-term Memory. Then click connected factors to explore strategies related to multiple factors.

Long-term Memory allows learners to store information, such as words, facts, events, or concepts, and retrieve and make use of this information at a later time (e.g., hours, months, decades, later). It plays an essential role in cognitive development, as learners gradually accumulate skills and Background Knowledge in their Long-term Memory and become better equipped to learn and solve problems. Different parts of the brain support the development of Long-term Memory throughout development and adolescence. As memories form across experiences, they strengthen connections in the brain and these new connections stay as long as they remain in use.

Main Ideas

The process of moving memories from Short-term Memory into Long-term Memory is called encoding, which is key to learning and often occurs naturally, but can be supported through a number of memorization strategies. Sleep also plays an influential role in encoding memories. Students with ADHD may show deficits in long-term memory due to disruption in the process of encoding. Once memories are encoded in Long-term Memory, the process of retrieval allows for access to the stored information. However, sometimes information stored in Long-term Memory cannot be retrieved (i.e., forgetting) which can happen for a number of reasons, including a lack of context cues (cues in the environment), because information was not encoded appropriately, or because new, related information interferes with the ability to remember old information (and vice versa).

The types of memories in our Long-term Memory can be categorized as:

  • Explicit (Declarative) Long-term Memory stores the memories that can be consciously retrieved and can be further broken down into two types:
    • Episodic Memory stores specific episodes, or events, in time, including when it happened and where (e.g., what we did yesterday). Students with dyslexia often have difficulty with verbal and visual-spatial episodic memory, although further research is needed to understand the brain function behind the difficulty. Episodic memory continues to develop in adolescence. Episodic memories formed during adolescence and early adulthood are easier to recall than those formed at other developmental stages.
    • Semantic Memory stores knowledge of general facts (e.g., Tokyo is in Japan). Students with dyscalculia may have difficulty encoding mathematical facts to Long-term Memory, though the specific reason is still being examined.
  • Implicit (Nondeclarative) Long-term Memory stores memories that do not require conscious thought or retrieval, including Emotion. Procedural Memory is a type of implicit memory that supports a cognitive or motor procedure or sequence of events (e.g., how to ride a bike, or read). Students who have dyscalculia typically have difficulty with procedural memory as it relates to visual-spatial concepts.

Schemas (also called schemata) are organizational systems for information in our Long-term Memory, that provide a framework upon which to add incoming knowledge to support interpretation and integration with existing Background Knowledge. Schemata support conceptual learning via complementary processes of Assimilation, adding new information to existing schema and Accomodation, altering or creating new schema to process new information or experiences. Every student brings a wealth of diverse and unique Background Knowledge and therefore have different schemata with which they organize knowledge. What “makes sense” to some students might not “make sense” to others. Therefore, it is important to check in with and consider learners' Background Knowledge to understand how to meet learners' needs and best support long term retention and learning.

View Measures and References

Research-Based Strategies For This Factor

Creating Visual Representations

Creating visual representations such as drawings, diagrams, graphs, and concept maps, whether student or teacher-generated, can help students process abstract concepts, enhancing understanding and retention of information.

Project-based Learning

Project-based learning (PBL) actively engages learners in authentic tasks designed to create products or design solutions that answer a given question or solve a problem.

Drawing

Encouraging learners to draw as a form of synthesizing key concepts and to explain their drawings in the classroom, can support the development of Core Academic Literacies, especially when solving complex problems across content areas.

Explaining Their Thinking

Students explaining their thinking during learning is a metacognitive process that involves actively self-questioning or being questioned while exploring new concepts, and explaining thoughts and reasoning in response.

Field Trips

Visiting places connected to classroom learning provides opportunities to add relevance to classroom topics and deepen understanding through firsthand experiences.

Games

Games support learning, as learners engage with new information in fun and informal ways.

Gallery Walk

Gallery walks are ways of showcasing content and materials as multiple “exhibitions” for students to view and interact with as part of larger learning goals.

Flexible Grouping

Flexible grouping is a classroom practice that temporarily places students together in given groups to work together, with the purpose of achieving a given learning goal or activity.

Cooperative Problem Solving

As learners work together to solve problems, they learn new strategies and practice Communication skills as they express their academic thinking.

Think-Pair-Share (Turn & Talk)

Think-Pair-Share (TPS), also known as Turn & Talk (T&T), is when the teacher pauses instruction so students can discuss a topic or prompt in pairs or small groups, to enhance engagement and learning outcomes.

Mnemonic Device

A mnemonic device is a creative way to support memory for new information using connections to current knowledge, for example by creating visuals, acronyms, or rhymes.

Think-Alouds

Incorporating think-alouds, or verbalizing thinking while reading or working through a new concept, can be a powerful way to help learners explore disciplinary texts, learn new skills, and retain content.

Guided Inquiry

In guided inquiry, teachers scaffold student learning and help students use their own language for constructing knowledge by active listening and questioning.

Supported Independent Reading

Supported independent reading, sometimes called Scaffolded Silent Reading, is when teachers scaffold and monitor learners' independent reading time, offering students a choice of accessible texts, and periodic check-in's with individual students to provide guidance and accountability.

Multimodal Teaching & Learning

Multimodal teaching and learning provide opportunities for students to engage with the same content through different sensory modalities, such as visual, auditory and tactile.

Audiobooks & E-Books

Audiobooks, digital text-to-speech books, and e-books are digital formats of literature that allow for portable and accessible reading experiences through audible narration and/or a written electronic version of a text.

Communication Boards

Communication boards are displays of graphics (e.g., pictures, symbols, illustrations) and/or words where learners can gesture or point to the displays to extend their expressive language potential.

Gestures

Using motions to explain new concepts or ideas supports the ability to process new information and to convey thinking and conceptual understanding.

Music & Dance

Music and dance supports learners in a myriad of ways, including supporting their engagement and motivation, connecting with cultural background, and offering structure during play.

Physical Activity & Exercise

Physical activity and exercise refer to any activities that allow students to engage in movement, physical play, or fitness, promoting physical and mental well-being.

Brief Instruction Steps

Providing instructional steps clearly and concisely can help learners understand classroom expectations, reduce cognitive load, and complete tasks more efficiently.

Incorporate Students' Cultural Practices

Learning about students' cultures and connecting them to instructional practices helps foster a Sense of Belonging, increase positive student Identity development, and mitigate Stereotype Threat.

Mnemonic Device

A mnemonic device is a creative way to support memory for new information using connections to current knowledge, for example by creating visuals, acronyms, or rhymes.

Physical Activity & Exercise

Physical activity and exercise refer to any activities that allow students to engage in movement, physical play, or fitness, promoting physical and mental well-being.

Feedback

Feedback is the process of providing learners with information about their learning to support their progress and improvement, and can come from a range of sources, including teachers and peers.

Spaced Practice

Spaced practice is a learning strategy that deliberately spaces out learning or study sessions over varying periods of time, with the purpose of increasing retention, understanding, and long-term knowledge acquisition.

Retrieval Practice

Retrieval practice requires students to access information, or get information “out” from Long-term memory in order to support better retention and understanding.

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