Measures and References: References: Visual Processing

Return to References: Visual Processing factor page.

Measures

Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.

Computer-Based Vision Tasks: (Boros et al., 2016): Ask students to remember or respond to the spatial position or a specific visual characteristic of either letters, digits, or non-linguistic symbols (this is often important to include so language skills do not impact scores).

Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: (Beery & Beery., 2010): Geometric design copying task, starting off with simple forms (e.g. a vertical line) and increasingly becoming more complex (e.g. a 3D star).

Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF): (Rey, 1941): Evaluates Visual Spatial Processing and memory for visual-spatial information.

Children's Mental Transformation Task (CMTT): **: (Levine et al., 1999): Assesses Spatial Skills in students aged four to seven.

References

Assel, M. A., Landry, S. H., Swank, P., Smith, K. E., & Steelman, L. M. (2003). Precursors to mathematical skills: Examining the roles of visual-spatial skills, executive processes, and parenting factors. Applied Developmental Science, 7(1), 27-38.

Barnhardt, C., Borsting, E., Deland, P., Pham, N., & Vu, T. (2005). Relationship between visual-motor integration and spatial organization of written language and math. Optometry and Vision Science, 82(2), 138–43.

Bedny, M., Richardson, H., & Saxe, R. (2015). “Visual” cortex responds to spoken language in blind children. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(33), 11674-11681.

Berchicci, M., Pontifex, M. B., Drollette, E. S., Pesce, C., Hillman, C. H., & Di Russo, F. (2015). From cognitive motor preparation to visual processing: The benefits of childhood fitness to brain health. Neuroscience, 298, 211-219.

Bleichrodt, N., Drenth, P. J. D., Zaal, J. N., & Resing, W. C. M. (1988). RAKIT: Revisie Amsterdamse Kinder Intelligentie Test. Swets & Zeitlinger.

Boros, M., Anton, J. L., Pech-Georgel, C., Grainger, J., Szwed, M., & Ziegler, J. C. (2016). Orthographic processing deficits in developmental dyslexia: Beyond the ventral visual stream. NeuroImage, 128, 316-327.

Bosse, M. L., Chaves, N., Largy, P., & Valdois, S. (2015). Orthographic learning during reading: The role of whole‐word visual processing. Journal of Research in Reading, 38(2), 141-158.

Crottaz-Herbette, S., Anagnoson, R. T., & Menon, V. (2004). Modality effects in verbal working memory: differential prefrontal and parietal responses to auditory and visual stimuli. Neuroimage, 21(1), 340-351.

Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2015). Illiterate to literate: Behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 234-244.

Dunn, W. (1997). The impact of sensory processing abilities on the daily lives of young children and their families: A conceptual model. Infants & Young Children, 9(4), 23-35.

​​Facoetti, A., Paganoni, P., Turatto, M., Marzola, V., & Mascetti, G. G. (2000). Visual-spatial attention in developmental dyslexia. Cortex, 36(1), 109-123.

Feagans, L. V., & Merriwether, A. (1990). Visual discrimination of letter-like forms and its relationship to achievement over time in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(7), 417-425.

Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Pedrolli, K., & Facoetti, A. (2012). A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition. Current Biology, 22(9), 814-819.

Goldstand, S., Koslowe, K. C., & Parush, S. (2005). Vision, visual-information processing, and academic performance among seventh-grade schoolchildren: A more significant relationship than we thought? American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 59(4), 377-389.

Gray, S., Green, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T., Kuo, T., Brinkley, S., & Cowan, N. (2017). The structure of working memory in young children and its relation to intelligence. Journal of Memory and Language, 92, 183-201.

Greenberg, A., Bellana, B., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Perspective-taking ability in bilingual children: Extending advantages in executive control to spatial reasoning. Cognitive Development, 28(1), 41-50.

Gruber, R., Laviolette, R., Deluca, P., Monson, E., Cornish, K., & Carrier, J. (2010). Short sleep duration is associated with poor performance on IQ measures in healthy school-age children. Sleep Medicine, 11(3), 289-294.

Hodgkiss, A., Gilligan, K. A., Tolmie, A. K., Thomas, M. S., & Farran, E. K. (2018). Spatial cognition and science achievement: The contribution of intrinsic and extrinsic spatial skills from 7 to 11 years. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 675-697.

James, K. H. (2010). Sensori‐motor experience leads to changes in visual processing in the developing brain. Developmental Science, 13(2), 279-288.

Kulp, M. T. (1999). Relationship between visual motor integration skill and academic performance in kindergarten through third grade. Optometry & Vision Science, 76(3), 159-163.

Lack, D. (2010). Another joint statement regarding learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision—A rebuttal. Optometry-Journal of the American Optometric Association, 81(10), 533-543.

Levine, S. C., Goldin‐Meadow, S., Carlson, M. T., & Hemani‐Lopez, N. (2018). Mental transformation skill in young children: The role of concrete and abstract motor training. Cognitive Science, 42(4), 1207-1228.

Lobier, M., Zoubrinetzky, R., & Valdois, S. (2012). The visual attention span deficit in dyslexia is visual and not verbal. Cortex, 48(6), 768-773.

Mazzocco, M. M., & Myers, G. F. (2003). Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 218-253.

Mäki, H. S., Voeten, M. J., Vauras, M. M., & Poskiparta, E. H. (2001). Predicting writing skill development with word recognition and preschool readiness skills. Reading and Writing, 14(7), 643-672.

Mayer, D., Sodian, B., Koerber, S., & Schwippert, K. (2014). Scientific reasoning in elementary school children: Assessment and relations with cognitive abilities. Learning and Instruction, 29, 43-55

McCoy, D. C., Roy, A. L., & Raver, C. C. (2016). Neighborhood crime as a predictor of individual differences in emotional processing and regulation. Developmental Science, 19(1), 164-174.

Mesquita, S., & Martins, P. C. (2022). Social information-processing in children with adverse experiences. Trauma Care, 2(2), 162-173.

Pieters, S., Desoete, A., Roeyers, H., Vanderswalmen, R., & Van Waelvelde, H. (2012). Behind mathematical learning disabilities: What about visual perception and motor skills? Learning and Individual Differences, 22(4), 498–504.

Price, G. R., & Ansari, D. (2013). Dyscalculia: Characteristics, causes, and treatments. Numeracy, 6(1), 2.

Pruden, S. M., Levine, S. C., & Huttenlocher, J. (2011). Children's spatial thinking: Does talk about the spatial world matter? Developmental Science, 14(6), 1417-1430.

Shenouda, C. K., & Danovitch, J. H. (2014). Effects of gender stereotypes and stereotype threat on children's performance on a spatial task. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 27(3), 53-77.

Sigmundsson, H., Hansen, P. C., & Talcott, J. B. (2003). Do ‘clumsy' children have visual deficits. Behavioural Brain Research, 139(1-2), 123-129.

Sortor, J. M., & Kulp, M. T. (2003). Are the results of the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and its subtests related to achievement test scores? Optometry & Vision Science, 80(11), 758-763.

Spliethoff, L., Li, S. C., & Dix, A. (2022). Incentive motivation improves numerosity discrimination in children and adolescents. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 10038.

Valdois, S. (2022). The visual-attention span deficit in developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a visual attention-based deficit. Dyslexia 1-19.

Volman, M. J. M., van Schendel, B. M., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60(4), 451-460.

Yang, X., & Meng, X. (2020). Visual processing matters in Chinese reading acquisition and early mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 462.

Zarfaty, Y., Nunes, T., & Bryant, P. (2004). The performance of young deaf children in spatial and temporal number tasks. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9(3), 315-326.

Ziegler, J. C., Pech‐Georgel, C., Dufau, S., & Grainger, J. (2010). Rapid processing of letters, digits and symbols: What purely visual‐attentional deficit in developmental dyslexia? Developmental Science, 13(4), F8-F14.