Return to References: Background Knowledge factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Funds of Knowledge Toolkit: Includes a Funds of Knowledge Inventory Matrix to help monitor and record students' funds of knowledge
Allen, T. E. (2015). ASL skills, fingerspelling ability, home communication context and early alphabetic knowledge of preschool-aged deaf children. Sign Language Studies, 15(3), 233-265.
Alvarez, A. (2018). Experiential knowledge and project-based learning in bilingual classrooms. Occasional Paper Series, 2018(39), 8.
Baer, C., & Friedman, O. (2018). Fitting the message to the listener: Children selectively mention general and specific facts. Child Development, 89(2), 461-475.
Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., & Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(3), 285-302
Barlow–Brown, F., & Connelly, V. (2002). The role of letter knowledge and phonological awareness in young braille readers. Journal of Research in Reading, 25(3), 259-270.
Becker, D. R., McClelland, M. M., Loprinzi, P., & Trost, S. G. (2014). Physical activity, self-regulation, and early academic achievement in preschool children. Early Education & Development, 25(1), 56-70.
Berhenke, A., Miller, A. L., Brown, E., Seifer, R., & Dickstein, S. (2011). Observed emotional and behavioral indicators of motivation predict school readiness in Head Start graduates. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(4), 430-441.
Bohnert, A. M., Crnic, K. A., & Lim, K. G. (2003). Emotional competence and aggressive behavior in school-age children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 79-91.
Bonawitz, E., Shafto, P., Gweon, H., Goodman, N. D., Spelke, E., & Schulz, L. (2011). The double-edged sword of pedagogy: Instruction limits spontaneous exploration and discovery. Cognition, 120(3), 322-330.
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 371-399.
Breiseth, L. (2023). Background knowledge and ELLs: What teachers need to know. Colorín Colorado.
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5-51.
Caughy, M. O. B., O'Campo, P. J., Randolph, S. M., & Nickerson, K. (2002). The influence of racial socialization practices on the cognitive and behavioral competence of African American preschoolers. Child Development, 73(5), 1611-1625.
Chou, P. T. M. (2011). The effects of vocabulary knowledge and background knowledge on reading comprehension of Taiwanese EFL students. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 8(1), 108-115.
Clark, C. A., Nelson, J. M., Garza, J., Sheffield, T. D., Wiebe, S. A., & Espy, K. A. (2014). Gaining control: changing relations between executive control and processing speed and their relevance for mathematics achievement over course of the preschool period. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 107.
Cooper, B. R., Moore, J. E., Powers, C. J., Cleveland, M., & Greenberg, M. T. (2014). Patterns of early reading and social skills associated with academic success in elementary school. Early Education and Development, 25(8), 1248-1264.
Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory?. Progress in Brain Research, 169, 323-338.
Davis, S., Rawlings, B., Clegg, J. M., Ikejimba, D., Watson-Jones, R. E., Whiten, A., & Legare, C. H. (2022). Cognitive flexibility supports the development of cumulative cultural learning in children. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 14073.
Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2015). Illiterate to literate: behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 234-244.
Derlan, C. L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., & Jahromi, L. B. (2017). Longitudinal relations among Mexican-origin mothers' cultural characteristics, cultural socialization, and 5-year-old children's ethnic–racial identification. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2078.
Donohoe, P. (2016). The Bullying Prevention Pack.
Donovan, C. A., Sekeres, D. C., & Kerch, C. J. (2020). Scaffolding background knowledge and emergent writing through conversations. YC Young Children, 75(5), 57-63.
Durlan, C. L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., & Jahromi, L. B. (2017). Longitudinal Relations Among Mexican-Origin Mothers' Cultural Characteristics, Cultural Socialization, and 5-Year-Old Children's Ethnic–Racial Identification. APA PsycNet.
Edwards, R., Caballero, C., & Puthussery, S. (2010). Parenting children from ‘mixed'racial, ethnic and faith backgrounds: Typifications of difference and belonging. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(6), 949-967.
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., & Eggum, N. D. (2010). Self-regulation and school readiness. Early Education and Development, 21(5), 681-698.
Elbro, C., & Buch-Iversen, I. (2013). Activation of background knowledge for inference making: Effects on reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(6), 435-452.
Elias, M. J., & Haynes, N. M. (2008). Social competence, social support, and academic achievement in minority, low-income, urban elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(4), 474
Feldhusen, J. F. (2002). Creativity: the knowledge base and children. High Ability Studies, 13(2), 179-183.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2012). Building and activating students' background knowledge: It's what they already know that counts: Teachers must assess and build on the background knowledge students possess. Middle School Journal, 43(3), 22-31.
Fitzpatrick, C., & Pagani, L. S. (2012). Toddler working memory skills predict kindergarten school readiness. Intelligence, 40(2), 205-212.
Forsberg, A., Guitard, D., Adams, E. J., Pattanakul, D., & Cowan, N. (2022). Children's long‐term retention is directly constrained by their working memory capacity limitations. Developmental Science, 25(2).
Foster, M. A., Lambert, R., Abbott-Shim, M., McCarty, F., & Franze, S. (2005). A model of home learning environment and social risk factors in relation to children's emergent literacy and social outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20(1), 13-36.
Gathercole, S. E., Briscoe, J., Thorn, A., Tiffany, C., & ALSPAC Study Team. (2008). Deficits in verbal long-term memory and learning in children with poor phonological short-term memory skills. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(3), 474-490.
Gómez, F., Nussbaum, M., Weitz, J. F., Lopez, X., Mena, J., & Torres, A. (2013). Co-located single display collaborative learning for early childhood education. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 8, 225-244.
Gopnik, A., Griffiths, T. L., & Lucas, C. G. (2015). When younger learners can be better (or at least more open-minded) than older ones. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(2), 87-92.
Gopnik, A., O'Grady, S., Lucas, C. G., Griffiths, T. L., Wente, A., Bridgers, S., ... & Dahl, R. E. (2017). Changes in cognitive flexibility and hypothesis search across human life history from childhood to adolescence to adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(30), 7892-7899.
Hein, E. G. (1991). Constructivist Learning Theory. Exploratorium.
Hirsch, E.D. (2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge - of words and the world: Scientific insights into the fourth-grade slump and stagnant reading comprehension. American Educator, 27(1), 10-22, 28-29, 48.
Hoffmeister, R., Henner, J., Caldwell-Harris, C., & Novogrodsky, R. (2022). Deaf children's ASL vocabulary and ASL syntax knowledge supports English knowledge. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 27(1), 37-47.
Hoffmeister, R. J., & Caldwell-Harris, C. L. (2014). Acquiring English as a second language via print: The task for deaf children. Cognition, 132(2), 229-242.
Hopewell, S. (2011). Leveraging bilingualism to accelerate English reading comprehension. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14(5), 603-620.
Hoza, B., Shoulberg, E. K., Tompkins, C. L., Meyer, L. E., Martin, C. P., Krasner, A., ... & Cook, H. (2021). Meeting a physical activity guideline in preschool and school readiness: a program evaluation. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 52, 719-727.
Janus, M., & Duku, E. (2007). The school entry gap: Socioeconomic, family, and health factors associated with children's school readiness to learn. Early Education and Development, 18(3), 375-403.
Kaefer, T., Neuman, S. B., & Pinkham, A. M. (2015). Pre-existing background knowledge influences socioeconomic differences in preschoolers' word learning and comprehension. Reading Psychology, 36(3), 203-231.
Koenig, A., Arunachalam, S., & Saudino, K. J. (2020). Lexical processing of nouns and verbs at 36 months of age predicts concurrent and later vocabulary and school readiness. Journal of Cognition and Development, 21(5), 670-689.
Kotler, J., Haider, T., & Levine, M. H. (2019). Identity Matters: Sesame Workshop
Lai, E. R. (2011). Critical thinking: A literature review. Pearson's Research Reports, 6(1), 40-41.
Laski, E. V., & Dulaney, A. (2015). When prior knowledge interferes, inhibitory control matters for learning: The case of numerical magnitude representations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4).
Lesane-Brown, C. L., Brown, T. N., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Bruce, M. A. (2010). Negotiating boundaries and bonds: Frequency of young children's socialization to their ethnic/racial heritage. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(3), 457-464.
Lewry, C., Gorucu, S., Liquin, E. G., & Lombrozo, T. (2023). Minimally counterintuitive stimuli trigger greater curiosity than merely improbable stimuli. Cognition, 230, 105286.
Liquin, E. G., & Gopnik, A. (2022). Children are more exploratory and learn more than adults in an approach-avoid task. Cognition, 218.
Lucas, C. G., Bridgers, S., Griffiths, T. L., & Gopnik, A. (2014). When children are better (or at least more open-minded) learners than adults: Developmental differences in learning the forms of causal relationships. Cognition, 131(2), 284-299.
Manyak, P. C. (2004). " What Did She Say?": Translation in a Primary-Grade English. Multicultural Perspectives, 6(1), 12-18.
Marzano, R. J. (2004). The importance of background knowledge. Building background knowledge for academic achievement: Research on what works in schools.
McClelland, M. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2003). The emergence of learning-related social skills in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18(2), 206-224.
McClure, E. R., Guernsey, L., Clements, D. H., Bales, S. N., Nichols, J., Kendall-Taylor, N., & Levine, M. H. (2017). STEM starts early: Grounding science, technology, engineering, and math education in early childhood. Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop. Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop. 1900 Broadway, New York, NY 10023.
McKown, C., & Strambler, M. J. (2009). Developmental antecedents and social and academic consequences of stereotype‐consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 80(6), 1643-1659.
McKown, C., & Weinstein, R. S. (2003). The development and consequences of stereotype consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 74(2), 498-515.
McNeil, L. (2011). Investigating the contributions of background knowledge and reading comprehension strategies to L2 reading comprehension: An exploratory study. Reading and Writing, 24(8), 883-902.
McWayne, C. M., Mistry, J., Hyun, S., Diez, V., Parker, C., Zan, B., ... & Brenneman, K. (2020). Incorporating knowledge from children's homes and communities. YC Young Children, 75(5), 20-27.
Meyer, H. A., & Astor, R. A. (2002). Child and parent perspectives on routes to and from school in high crime neighborhoods. Journal of School Violence, 1(4), 101-128.
Miller, A. L., Fine, S. E., Kiely Gouley, K., Seifer, R., Dickstein, S., & Shields, A. (2006). Showing and telling about emotions: Interrelations between facets of emotional competence and associations with classroom adjustment in Head Start preschoolers. Cognition and Emotion, 20(8), 1170-1192.
Moje, E. B., Ciechanowski, K. M., Kramer, K., Ellis, L., Carrillo, R., & Collazo, T. (2004). Working toward third space in content area literacy: An examination of everyday funds of knowledge and discourse. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(1), 38-70.
Neuman, S. B., Kaefer, T., & Pinkham, A. (2014). Building background knowledge. The Reading Teacher, 68(2), 145-148.
Nunes, T., Bryant, P., Burman, D., Bell, D., Evans, D., & Hallett, D. (2009). Deaf children's informal knowledge of multiplicative reasoning. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 14(2), 260-277.
Price, L. H., Bradley, B. A., & Smith, J. M. (2012). A comparison of preschool teachers' talk during storybook and information book read-alouds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 426-440.
Pulido, D. (2004). The effect of cultural familiarity on incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading. The Reading Matrix: An Online International Journal, 4(2), 20-53.
Rodriguez, J., Umana-Taylor, A., Smith, E. P., & Johnson, D. J. (2009). Cultural processes in parenting and youth outcomes: examining a model of racial-ethnic socialization and identity in diverse populations. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 106.
Sak, U., & Maker, C. J. (2006). Developmental variation in children's creative mathematical thinking as a function of schooling, age, and knowledge. Creativity Research Journal, 18(3), 279-291.
Sarver, D. E., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J., Scanlan, S. W., Raiker, J. S., Altro, T. A., & Bolden, J. (2012). Attention problems, phonological short-term memory, and visuospatial short-term memory: Differential effects on near-and long-term scholastic achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(1), 8-19.
Serrano-Villar, M., & Calzada, E. J. (2016). Ethnic identity: Evidence of protective effects for young, Latino children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 42, 21–30.
Shapiro, A. (2004). How including prior knowledge as a subject variable may change outcomes of learning research. American Educational Research Journal, 41(1), 159-189.
Shaul, S., & Schwartz, M. (2014). The role of the executive functions in school readiness among preschool-age children. Reading and Writing, 27, 749-768.
Smith, R., Snow, P., Serry, T., & Hammond, L. (2021). The role of background knowledge in reading comprehension: A critical review. Reading Psychology, 42(3), 214-240.
Sonnenschein, S. (1988). The development of referential communication: Speaking to different listeners. Child Development, 694-702.
Stahl, A. E., & Feigenson, L. (2019). Violations of core knowledge shape early learning. Topics in Cognitive Science, 11(1), 136-153.
Taboada, A., Tonks, S. M., Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (2009). Effects of motivational and cognitive variables on reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 22(1), 85-106.
Tso, W., Rao, N., Jiang, F., Li, A. M., Lee, S. L., Ho, F. K. W., & Ip, P. (2016). Sleep duration and school readiness of Chinese preschool children. The Journal of Pediatrics, 169, 266-271.
Turnbull, K. L., Mateus, D. M. C., LoCasale-Crouch, J., Lewin, D. S., & Williford, A. P. (2022). Sleep patterns and school readiness of pre-kindergarteners from racially and ethnically diverse, low-income backgrounds. The Journal of Pediatrics, 251, 178-186.
Vanderloo, L. M., Omand, J., Keown-Stoneman, C. D., Janus, M., Tremblay, M. S., Maguire, J. L., ... & Birken, C. S. (2022). Association between physical activity, screen time and sleep, and school readiness in canadian children aged 4 to 6 years. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 43(2), 96-103.
Van Hell, J. G., Bosman, A. M., Wiggers, I., & Stoit, J. (2003). Children's cultural background knowledge and story telling performance. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7(3), 283-303.
van Loon, M. H., de Bruin, A. B., van Gog, T., & van Merriënboer, J. J. (2013). Activation of inaccurate prior knowledge affects primary-school students' metacognitive judgments and calibration. Learning and Instruction, 24, 15-25.
Vitiello, V. E., Greenfield, D. B., & Munis, P. (2016). Cognitive flexibility, approaches to learning, and academic school readiness in Head Start preschool children. In Self-Regulation and Early School Success (pp. 34-56). Routledge.
Walker, A. K., & MacPhee, D. (2011). How home gets to school: Parental control strategies predict children's school readiness. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(3), 355-364.
Wang, J., Yang, Y., Macias, C., & Bonawitz, E. (2021). Children with more uncertainty in their intuitive theories seek domain-relevant information. Psychological Science, 32(7), 1147-1156.
White, D. Y. (2003). Promoting productive mathematical classroom discourse with diverse students. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 22(1), 37-53.
Williams, A. (2020). The power of knowledge to transform teaching and learning. YC Young Children, 75(5), 6-13.
't Gilde, J., & Volman, M. (2021). Finding and using students' funds of knowledge and identity in superdiverse primary schools: a collaborative action research project. Cambridge Journal of Education, 51(6), 673–692.