Measures and References: Handwriting Skills

Return to Handwriting Skills factor page.

Measures

Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.

Minnesota Handwriting Test (Reisman, 1999): A norm-referenced test to analyze handwriting in early elementary school and help therapists and teachers to track handwriting progress over time.

References

Bara, F., Morin, M. F., Alamargot, D., & Bosse, M. L. (2016). Learning different allographs through handwriting: The impact on letter knowledge and reading acquisition. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 88-94.

Blackburne, L. K., Eddy, M. D., Kalra, P., Yee, D., Sinha, P., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2014). Neural correlates of letter reversal in children and adults. PLoS One, 9(5), e98386.

Blatchford, P. (1991). Children's writing at 7 years: associations with handwriting on school entry and pre‐school factors. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61(1), 73-84.

Brossard-Racine, M., Majnemer, A., Shevell, M., Snider, L., & Belanger, S. A. (2011). Handwriting capacity in children newly diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(6), 2927-2934.

Capellini, S. A., Giaconi, C., & Germano, G. D. (2017). Relation between visual motor integration and handwriting in students of elementary school. Psychology, 8(2), 258-270.

Erhardt, R. P., & Meade, V. (2005). Improving handwriting without teaching handwriting: The consultative clinical reasoning process. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 52(3), 199-210.

Fawcett, A. J., & Nicolson, R. I. (1995). Persistent deficits in motor skill of children with dyslexia. Journal of Motor Behavior, 27(3), 235-240.

Ghasemi, M., Mirseifi Fard, L. S., Khalili, F., & Karami, M. (2020). The effect of perceptual-motor skills training on improvement of handwriting in preschool children. Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health, 7(3), 96-107.

Gosse, C., & Van Reybroeck, M. (2020). Do children with dyslexia present a handwriting deficit? Impact of word orthographic and graphic complexity on handwriting and spelling performance. Research in developmental disabilities, 97, 103553.

Graham, S., Harris, K., & Fink, B. (2000). Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 620-633.

Graham, S., Fishman, E. J., Reid, R., & Hebert, M. (2016). Writing characteristics of students with attention deficit hyperactive disorder: A meta-analysis. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 31(2), 75-89.

James, K. H. (2017). The importance of handwriting experience on the development of the literate brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 502-508.

Johnson, D. J., & Carlisle, J. F. (1996). A study of handwriting in written stories of normal and learning disabled children. Reading and Writing, 8(1), 45-59.

Leung, M. M., Lam, C. S., Lam, S. S., Pao, N. W., & Li-Tsang, C. W. (2014). Visual profile of children with handwriting difficulties in Hong Kong Chinese. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(1), 144-152.

Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M. T., & Velay, J. L. (2005). The influence of writing practice on letter recognition in preschool children: A comparison between handwriting and typing. Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 67-79.

Maki, H. S., Voeten, M. J., Vauras, M. M., & Poskiparta, E. H. (2001). Predicting writing skill development with word recognition and preschool readiness skills. Reading and Writing, 14(7), 643-672.

Marr, D., Windsor, M. M., & Cermak, S. (2001). Handwriting readiness: Locatives and visuomotor skills in the kindergarten year. Early Childhood Research & Practice 3(1), 2-16.

Reisman, J. E. (1993). Development and reliability of the research version of the Minnesota Handwriting Test. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 13(2), 41-55.

Seo, S. M. (2018). The effect of fine motor skills on handwriting legibility in preschool age children. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 30(2), 324-327.

Volman, M. J. M., van Schendel, B. M., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60(4), 451-460.

Xu, Z., Liu, D., & Joshi, R. (2020). The influence of sensory-motor components of handwriting on Chinese character learning in second-and fourth-grade Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(7), 1353.