Return to References: Hearing factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Pure-Tone Audiometry: Assesses how well an individual can hear sounds at different pitches (frequencies) by having a student wear headphones and indicate when they hear a sound.
Al-Hilawani, Y. A., Easterbrooks, S. R., & Marchant, G. J. (2002). Metacognitive ability from a theory-of-mind perspective: A cross-cultural study of students with and without hearing loss. American Annals of the Deaf, 38-47.
Allen, T. E. (2015). ASL skills, fingerspelling ability, home communication context and early alphabetic knowledge of preschool-aged deaf children. Sign Language Studies, 15(3), 233-265.
Alvarado, J. M., Jiménez, V., & Jiménez, A. (2012). Using a test adapted to sign language to assess metacognitive skill of deaf students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 1353-1357.
Alvarado, J. M., Puente, A., & Herrera, V. (2008). Visual and phonological coding in working memory and orthographic skills of deaf children using Chilean sign language. American Annals of the Deaf, 152(5), 467-479.
Antia, S. D., Stinson, M. S., & Gaustad, M. G. (2002). Developing membership in the education of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in inclusive settings. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 7(3), 214-229.
Antia, S. D., Stinson, M. S., & Gaustad, M. G. (2002). Developing membership in the education of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in inclusive settings. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7(3), 214-229.
Bauman, S., & Pero, H. (2011). Bullying and cyberbullying among deaf students and their hearing peers: An exploratory study. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16(2), 236-253.
Berger, L., Pyers, J., Lieberman, A., & Caselli, N. (2023). Parent American Sign Language skills correlate with child–but not toddler–ASL vocabulary size. Language Acquisition, 1-15.
Boons, T., De Raeve, L., Langereis, M., Peeraer, L., Wouters, J., & Van Wieringen, A. (2013). Expressive vocabulary, morphology, syntax and narrative skills in profoundly deaf children after early cochlear implantation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(6), 2008-2022.
Boss, E. F., Niparko, J. K., Gaskin, D. J., & Levinson, K. L. (2011). Socioeconomic disparities for hearing‐impaired children in the United States. The Laryngoscope, 121(4), 860-866.
Bouldin, E., Patel, S. R., Tey, C. S., White, M., Alfonso, K. P., & Govil, N. (2021). Bullying and children who are deaf or hard‐of‐hearing: A scoping review. The Laryngoscope, 131(8), 1884-1892.
Briscoe, J., Bishop, D. V., & Norbury, C. F. (2001). Phonological processing, language, and literacy: A comparison of children with mild-to-moderate sensorineural hearing loss and those with specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(3), 329-340.
Caselli, N., Pyers, J., & Lieberman, A. M. (2021). Deaf children of hearing parents have age-level vocabulary growth when exposed to American Sign Language by 6 months of age. The Journal of Pediatrics, 232, 229-236.
Ching, T.Y., Crowe, K., Martin, V., Day, J., Mahler, N., Youn, S., & Orsini, J. (2010). Language development and everyday functioning of children with hearing loss assessed at 3 years of age. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 12(2), 124-131.
Delage, H., & Tuller, L. (2007). Language development and mild-to-moderate hearing loss: Does language normalize with age? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(5), 1300-1313.
DesJardin, J. L., & Ambrose, S. E. (2010). The importance of the home literacy environment for developing literacy skills in young children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Young Exceptional Children, 13(5), 28-44.
Digital Promise (2023). Literacy PK-3.
Edwards, L., Figueras, B., Mellanby, J., & Langdon, D. (2011). Verbal and spatial analogical reasoning in deaf and hearing children: the role of grammar and vocabulary. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16(2), 189-197.
Eichengreen, A., Zaidman-Zait, A., Most, T., & Golik, G. (2022). Resilience from childhood to young adulthood: Retrospective perspectives of deaf and hard of hearing people who studied in regular schools. Psychology & health, 37(3), 331-349.
Fagan, M. K. (2016). Spoken vocabulary development in deaf children with and without cochlear implants. The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language, 132-145.
Figueras, B., Edwards, L., & Langdon, D. (2008). Executive function and language in deaf children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(3), 362-377.
Freitas, E., Simões, C., Santos, A. C., & Mineiro, A. (2022). Resilience in deaf children: A comprehensive literature review and applications for school staff. Journal of Community Psychology, 50(2), 1198-1223.
Gaustad, M. (1999). Including the kids across the hall: collaborative instruction of hearing, deaf, and hard-of-hearing students. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 4(3), 176-190.
Greco, V., Beresford, B., & Sutherland, H. (2009). Deaf Children and Young People's Experiences of Using Specialist Mental Health Services. Children & Society, 23(6), 455–469.
Hall, W. C., Dye, T. D., & Siddiqi, S. (2023). Associations of childhood hearing loss and adverse childhood experiences in deaf adults. Plos one, 18(6).
Hall, M. L., Hall, W. C., & Caselli, N. K. (2019). Deaf children need language, not (just) speech. First Language, 39(4), 367-395.
Hansson, K., Forsberg, J., Löfqvist, A., Mäki-Torkko, E., & Sahlén, B. (2004). Working memory and novel word learning in children with hearing impairment and children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 39(3), 401–422.
Harris, M. S., Kronenberger, W. G., Gao, S., Hoen, H. M., Miyamoto, R. T., & Pisoni, D. B. (2013). Verbal short-term memory development and spoken language outcomes in deaf children with cochlear implants. Ear and Hearing, 34(2), 179.
Hoffmeister, R., Henner, J., Caldwell-Harris, C., & Novogrodsky, R. (2022). Deaf children's ASL vocabulary and ASL syntax knowledge supports English knowledge. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 27(1), 37-47.
Horn, D. L., Davis, R. A., Pisoni, D. B., & Miyamoto, R. T. (2004). Visual attention, behavioral inhibition and speech/language outcomes in deaf children with cochlear implants. In International Congress Series, 1273, 332-335. Elsevier.
Horn, D. L., Davis, R. A., Pisoni, D. B., & Miyamoto, R. T. (2004). Visual attention, behavioral inhibition and speech/language outcomes in deaf children with cochlear implants. International congress series, 1273, 332-335.
Houston, D. M., Stewart, J., Moberly, A., Hollich, G., & Miyamoto, R. T. (2012). Word learning in deaf children with cochlear implants: Effects of early auditory experience. Developmental science, 15(3), 448-461.
Humphries, T., Kushalnagar, P., Mathur, G., Napoli, D. J., Rathmann, C., & Smith, S. (2019). Support for parents of deaf children: Common questions and informed, evidence-based answers. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 118, 134-142.
Humphries, T., Mathur, G., Napoli, D. J., Padden, C., & Rathmann, C. (2022). Deaf Children Need Rich Language Input from the Start: Support in Advising Parents. Children, 9(11), 1609.
Johnson, P., Cawthon, S., Fink, B., Wendel, E., & Schoffstall, S. (2018). Trauma and resilience among deaf individuals. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 23(4), 317-330.
Kluwin, T. N., Stinson, M. S., & Colarossi, G. M. (2002). Social processes and outcomes of in-school contact between deaf and hearing peers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7(3), 200-213.
Kyle, F. E., & Harris, M. (2010). Predictors of reading development in deaf children: A 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of experimental child psychology, 107(3), 229-243.
Lachs, L., Pisoni, D. B., & Kirk, K. I. (2001). Use of audiovisual information in speech perception by prelingually deaf children with cochlear implants: A first report. Ear and hearing, 22(3), 236.
Marschark, M. (1998). Memory for language in deaf adults and children. Scandinavian Audiology, 27(4), 87-92.
Marshall, C., Jones, A., Denmark, T., Mason, K., Atkinson, J., Botting, N., & Morgan, G. (2015). Deaf children's non-verbal working memory is impacted by their language experience. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 527.
Mathews, E. S., & O'Donnell, M. (2020). Phonological decoding and reading comprehension in deaf and hard-of-hearing children. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 35(2), 220-235.
Meristo, M., Falkman, K. W., Hjelmquist, E., Tedoldi, M., Surian, L., & Siegal, M. (2007). Language access and theory of mind reasoning: evidence from deaf children in bilingual and oralist environments. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1156.
Moeller, M. P., Tomblin, J. B., Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Connor, C. M., & Jerger, S. (2007). Current state of knowledge: Language and literacy of children with hearing impairment. Ear and Hearing, 28(6), 740-753.
Montgomery, J. W., & Windsor, J. (2007). Examining the language performances of children with and without specific language impairment: Contributions of phonological short-term memory and speed of processing. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(3), 778-797.
Nielsen, D. C., & Luetke-Stahlman, B. (2002). Phonological awareness: One key to the reading proficiency of deaf children. American Annals of the Deaf, 147(3), 11-19.
Norbury, C. F., Bishop, D. V. M., & Briscoe, J. (2001). Production of English finite verb morphology: A comparison of SLI and mild–moderate hearing impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 165-179.
Norbury, C. F., Bishop, D. V. M., & Briscoe, J. (2002). Does impaired grammatical comprehension provide evidence for an innate grammar module? Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 247-268.
Nunes, T., Bryant, P., Burman, D., Bell, D., Evans, D., & Hallett, D. (2009). Deaf children's informal knowledge of multiplicative reasoning. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 14(2), 260-277.
Nunes, T., Pretzlik, U., & Olsson, J. (2001). Deaf children's social relationships in mainstream schools. Deafness & Education International, 3(3), 123-136.
Qi, S., & Mitchell, R. E. (2012). Large-scale academic achievement testing of deaf and hard-of-hearing students: Past, present, and future. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 17(1), 1-18.
Rashid, S. M. U., Mukherjee, D., & Ahmmed, A. U. (2018). Auditory processing and neuropsychological profiles of children with functional hearing loss. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 114, 51-60.
Simpson, A., Enticott, J. C., & Douglas, J. (2017). Corrigendum to: Socioeconomic status as a factor in Indigenous and non-Indigenous children with hearing loss: analysis of national survey data. Australian Journal of Primary Health, 23(2), 208-208.
Singleton, J. L., Morgan, D., DiGello, E., Wiles, J., & Rivers, R. (2004). Vocabulary use by low, moderate, and high ASL-proficient writers compared to hearing ESL and monolingual speakers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9(1), 86-103.
Smith, B., Zhang, J., Pham, G. N., Pakanati, K., Raol, N., Ongkasuwan, J., & Anne, S. (2019). Effects of socioeconomic status on children with hearing loss. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 116, 114-117.
Stelmachowicz, P. G., Pittman, A. L., Hoover, B. M., & Lewis, D. E. (2004). Novel-word learning in children with normal hearing and hearing loss. Ear and Hearing, 25, 47–56.
Swanwick, R. (2016). Deaf children's bimodal bilingualism and education. Language Teaching, 49(1), 1-34.
Theunissen, S. C., Rieffe, C., Kouwenberg, M., Soede, W., Briaire, J. J., & Frijns, J. H. (2011). Depression in hearing-impaired children. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 75(10), 1313-1317.
Vohr, B., Jodoin-Krauzyk, J., Tucker, R., Topol, D., Johnson, M. J., Ahlgren, M., & Pierre, L. (2011). Expressive vocabulary of children with hearing loss in the first 2 years of life: Impact of early intervention. Journal of Perinatology, 31(4), 274-280.
Wauters, L. N., & Knoors, H. (2008). Social integration of deaf children in inclusive settings. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 13(1), 21-36.
Williams, C., & Mayer, C. (2015). Writing in young deaf children. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 630-666.
Yan, P., & Paul, P. V. (2021). Metacognition and English reading related outcomes for d/Deaf and hard of hearing students: A narrative review. Human Research in Rehabilitation, 11(2), 88-106.
Zarfaty, Y., Nunes, T., & Bryant, P. (2004). The performance of young deaf children in spatial and temporal number tasks. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9(3), 315-326.