Return to References: Primary Language factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Language History Questionnaire: (Li et al., 2006): Self-report questionnaire to assess adults' experience, proficiency, and use of their languages
TOEFL: Standardized test which measures non-native English speakers' ability to read, write, understand and speak English in a higher education context
Abduljabbar, A. L. (2019). The predictive utility of critical thinking skills on language proficiency in adult English as a second language learners [Doctoral dissertation, Grand Canyon University].
Arnesen, K. T. (2019). Understanding adult English language learners' experience with self-regulation in a blended English language course. [Master's thesis, Brigham Young University].
Batalova, J., & Fix, M. (2019). Credentials for the Future: Mapping the Potential for Immigrant-Origin Adults in the United States. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.
Biazotto André, A. (2018). Learning about and becoming aware of reading strategies and metacognition in English by adult second language learners. [Doctoral dissertation, Illinois State University].
Bigelow, M., & Schwarz, R. L. (2010). Adult English language learners with limited literacy. National Institute for Literacy. Washington, DC.
Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Schaetzel, K. (2008). Working with adult English language learners with limited literacy: Research, practice, and professional development. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved September, 12, 2008.
Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Adams, R. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: A review of the research. National Center for ESL Literacy Education (NCLE).
Condelli, L., Wrigley, H., & Yoon, K. S. (2009). ”What works” for adult literacy students of English as a second language. Tracking Adult Literacy and Numeracy Skills: Findings from Longitudinal Research, 132-159.
Craik, F. I., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726-1729.
Declerck, M., & Philipp, A. M. (2015). A review of control processes and their locus in language switching. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(6), 1630-1645.
Finn, H. B. (2010). Overcoming barriers: Adult refugee trauma survivors in a learning community. TESOL Quarterly, 44(3), 586-596.
Greenberg, D., Wise, J., Frijters, J., Morris, R., Fredrick, L., Rodrigo, V., & Hall, S. (2013). Persisters and nonpersisters: Identifying who stays and who leaves from adult literacy interventions. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26(4), 495-514.
Grabe, W. (2014). Key issues in L2 reading development. In Proceedings of the 4th CELC Symposium for English Language Teachers-Selected Papers (pp. 8-18).
Granena, G., & Long, M. (Eds.). (2013). Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment (Vol. 35). John Benjamins Publishing.
Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition, 177, 263-277.
Ingvalson, E. M., Ettlinger, M., & Wong, P. C. (2014). Bilingual speech perception and learning: A review of recent trends. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(1), 35-47.
Jiang, B., & Kuehn, P. (2001). Transfer in the academic language development of post-secondary ESL students. Bilingual Research Journal, 25(4), 653-672.
Komiyama, R. (2013). Factors underlying second language reading motivation of adult EAP students. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 149-169.
Li, P., Sepanski, S., & Zhao, X. (2006). Language history questionnaire: A web-based interface for bilingual research. Behavior Research Methods, 38(2), 202-210.
Linck, J. A., Osthus, P., Koeth, J. T., & Bunting, M. F. (2014). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(4), 861-883.
Martinez, T. E., Wang, T., & Petsod, D. (2005). Supporting English language acquisition: Opportunities for foundations to strengthen the social and economic well-being of immigrant families. Baltimore: The Anne E. Casey Foundation.
McCardle, P., Mele-McCarthy, J., Cutting, L., Leos, K., & D'Emilio, T. (2005). Learning disabilities in English language learners: Identifying the issues. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 1-5.
Middleton, A., Turner, G. H., Bitner‐Glindzicz, M., Lewis, P., Richards, M., Clarke, A., & Stephens, D. (2010). Preferences for communication in clinic from deaf people: A cross‐sectional study. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 16(4), 811-817.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). Indicator 5: Student computer use and internet-access at home. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017098/ind_05.asp
Norton, B., & Toohey, K. (2011). Identity, language learning, and social change. Language Teaching, 44(4), 412-446.
Park, G. (2013). ‘Writing is a way of knowing': writing and identity. ELT Journal, 67(3), 336-345.
Prior, A., & Gollan, T. H. (2011). Good language-switchers are good task-switchers: Evidence from Spanish-English and Mandarin-English bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(4), 682–691.
Ransdell, S., Barbier, M. L., & Niit, T. (2006). Metacognitions about language skill and working memory among monolingual and bilingual college students: When does multilingualism matter? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9(6), 728–741.
Ringbom, H., & Jarvis, S. (2009). The importance of cross-linguistic similarity in foreign language learning. In H. Long, Michael & J. Doughty, Catherine (Eds.), The Handbook of Language Teaching (pp. 106–118). Wiley-Blackwell.
Rose, G. L. (2009). Language acculturation anxiety in Spanish speaking adults learning English. SL&i en red: Segundas Lenguas e Inmigración en red, (3), 26-49.
Russo, M., Islam, G., & Koyuncu, B. (2017). Non-native accents and stigma: How self-fulfilling prophesies can affect career outcomes. Human Resource Management Review, 27(3), 507-520.
Van Rinsveld, A., Brunner, M., Landerl, K., Schiltz, C., & Ugen, S. (2015). The relation between language and arithmetic in bilinguals: Insights from different stages of language acquisition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 265.
Wood, K. (2011). Writing Together: Building Community through Learner Stories in Adult ESL. TESOL Journal, 2(2), 239-248.
Wrigley, H.S., Chen, J., White, S., & Soroui, J. (2009) Assessing the literacy skills of adult immigrants and adult English language learners. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2009(121), 5-24.
Yoon, H., Jang, Y., Vaughan, P. W., & Garcia, M. (2020). Older adults' Internet use for health information: Digital divide by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 39(1), 105-110.