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Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Conceptual Scoring (Wang, Castilleja, Sepulveda, & Daniel, 2011): A method for evaluating a child's entire language system, which is important because bi/multilingual children typically possess different skills in their various languages. It is essential to assess language skills in every language a child knows in order to achieve a full picture of their language proficiency to understand patterns within and across languages.
Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey - Revised Normative Update (WMLS-R NU) (Schrank et al., 2010): A norm-referenced test of reading, writing, listening, and language comprehension skills that can be administered in both English and Spanish
Mathematical Word Problems with and Without Distractors (English Translations) (Kempert, Saalbach, & Hardy, 2011): * A test of mathematical word problem-solving abilities, wherein two types of work problems are presented verbally (i.e., with and without distractors) that consists of exchange, comparison, complex comparison, and complex combination problems.
Language Use Questionnaire (MacLeod et al., 2013): * A questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions to evaluate the use and exposure to the Primary Language and second languages among simultaneous bilingual students.
Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sanchez, M. (2014). The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 699-714.
Bialystok, E. (2001) Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Bialystok, E. (2009). Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent. Bilingualism: Language
and Cognition, 12(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728908003477
Bialystok, E. (2018). Bilingualism and executive function: What's the connection? In D. Miller, F. Bayram, J. Rothman, & L. Serratrice (Eds.), Bilingual cognition and language: The state of the science across its subfields. (pp. 283-305). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Bialystok, E., & Martin, M. M. (2004). Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science, 7(3), 325-339.
Bialystok, E., & Senman, L. (2004). Executive processes in appearance-reality tasks: The role of inhibition of attention and symbolic representation. Child Development, 75(2), 562-579.
Burns, M. K., & Helman, L. A. (2009). Relationship between language skills and acquisition rate of sight words among English language learners. Literacy Research and Instruction, 48(3), 221-232.
Caldwell, B., Gonzalez, J.F., & Huitzilopochtli, S. (n.d.). Multilingual students and mathematics education. English Learners Success Forum.
Chan, S. (2015). Linguistic challenges in the mathematical register for EFL learners: Linguistic and multimodal strategies to help learners tackle mathematics word problems. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(3), 306-318.
Chamorro, G., & Janke, V. (2022). Investigating the bilingual advantage: the impact of L2 exposure on the social and cognitive skills of monolingually-raised children in bilingual education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(5), 1765-1781.
Daubert, E. N., & Ramani, G. B. (2019). Math and memory in bilingual preschoolers: The relations between bilingualism, working memory, and numerical knowledge. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20(3), 314-333.
de Araujo, Z., Roberts, S. A., Willey, C., & Zahner, W. (2018). English learners in K-12 mathematics education: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 88(6), 879-919.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.
Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. (1998). Background knowledge, linguistic complexity, and second-language reading comprehension. Journal of Literacy Research, 30(2), 253-271.
Fillmore, L. W. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6(3), 323-346.
Foy, J. G., & Mann, V. A. (2013). Bilingual children show advantages in nonverbal auditory executive function task. _International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(_6), 717-729.
Gillanders, C., Franco, X., Seidel, K., Castro, D. C., & Mendez, L. I. (2017). Young dual language learners' emergent writing development. Early Child Development and Care, 187(3-4), 371-382.
Gonzalez, J., Pollard-Durodola, S., Saenz, L., Soares, D., Davis, H., Resendez, N., & Zhu, L. (2016). Spanish and English early literacy profiles of preschool Latino English language learner children. Early Education and Development, 27(4), 513-531.
Han, W. J. (2010). Bilingualism and socioemotional well-being. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(5), 720-731.
Hartanto, A., Yang, H., & Yang, S. (2018). Bilingualism positively predicts mathematical competence: Evidence from two large-scale studies. Learning and Individual Differences, 61, 216-227.
Haskins, R., Greenberg, M., & Fremstad, S. (2004). Federal policy for immigrant children: Room for common ground? (Policy Brief). The Future of Children, 14(2), 2-6.
Hernandez, C. M., Morales, A. R., & Shroyer, M. G. (2013). The development of a model of culturally responsive science and mathematics teaching. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 8(4), 803-820.
Hoff, E. (2013). Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: Implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 4-14.
Hoff, E., Core, C., Place, S., Rumiche, R., Señor, M., & Parra, M. (2012). Dual language exposure and early bilingual development. Journal of Child Language, 39(1), 1-27.
Hruska, B. (2007). "She My Friend": Implications of Friend Ideologies, Identities, and Relationships for Bilingual Kindergarteners. Multicultural Perspectives, 9(4), 3-12.
Kersaint, G., Thompson, D. R., & Petkova, M. (2014). Teaching mathematics to English language learners. Routledge.
Kormi-Nouri, R., Shojaei, R. S., Moniri, S., Gholami, A. R., Moradi, A. R., Akbari-Zardkhaneh, S., & Nilsson, L. G. (2008). The effect of childhood bilingualism on episodic and semantic memory tasks. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 93-109.
Lesaux, N. K., Crosson, A. C., Kieffer, M. J., & Pierce, M. (2010). Uneven profiles: Language minority learners' word reading, vocabulary, and reading comprehension skills. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(6), 475-483.
Lima Becker, M., & Oliveira, G. (2022). Breaking nation: Brazilian transnational children's construction of belonging in bilingual classrooms. Childhood, 29(1), 39-57.
Mancilla‐Martinez, J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2011). The gap between Spanish speakers' word reading and word knowledge: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 82(5), 1544-1560.
Marchman, V. A., Fernald, A., & Hurtado, N. (2010). How vocabulary size in two languages relates to efficiency in spoken word recognition by young Spanish-English bilinguals. Journal of Child Language, 37(04), 817-840.
Matang, R. A., & Owens, K. (2014). The role of indigenous traditional counting systems in children's development of numerical cognition: Results from a study in Papua New Guinea. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 26, 531-553.
McCardle, P., Keller-Allen, C., & Shuy, T. (2008). Learning disability identification. In E. Grigorenko (Ed.), Educating individuals with disabilities(pp. 137-164). New York, NY: Springer.
McIvor, O. (2005). The contribution of Indigenous heritage language immersion programs to healthy early childhood development. Compendium on Aboriginal early child development, 5-20.
McLeod, S., Verdon, S., & Theobald, M. (2015). Becoming bilingual: Children's insights about making friends in bilingual settings. International Journal of Early Childhood, 47, 385-402.
Meristo, M., Falkman, K. W., Hjelmquist, E., Tedoldi, M., Surian, L., & Siegal, M. (2007). Language access and theory of mind reasoning: evidence from deaf children in bilingual and oralist environments. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1156.
Moje, E. B., Ciechanowski, K. M., Kramer, K., Ellis, L., Carrillo, R., & Collazo, T. (2004). Working toward third space in content area literacy: An examination of everyday funds of knowledge and discourse. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(1), 38-70.
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 187-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.09.002
Moschkovich, J. (2007). Using two languages when learning mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 64(2), 121-144.
Moschkovich, J. (2009, March 17). Using two languages when learning mathematics: How can research help us understand mathematics learners who use two languages? Research brief. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Moschkovich, J. N. (2020). Bilingual/multilingual issues in learning mathematics. In S. Lerman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of mathematics education (2nd ed., pp. 75-79). Springer.
Morton, J. B., & Harper, S. N. (2007). What did Simon say? Revisiting the bilingual advantage. Developmental Science, 10(6), 719-726.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCSM). (n.d.). A position of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Transforming practices and policies so multilingual learners thrive in mathematics.
National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics (NSCM) and TODOS. (2021). Positioning Multilingual Learners
Phelps, J., Attaheri, A., & Bozic, M. (2022). How bilingualism modulates selective attention in children. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 6381.
Park, S. M. (2013). Immigrant students' heritage language and cultural identity maintenance in multilingual and multicultural societies. Concordia Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, 4, 30-53.
Pinnow, R. J., & Chval, K. B. (2015). "How much you wanna bet?": Examining the role of positioning in the development of L2 learner interactional competencies in the content classroom. Linguistics and Education, 30, 1-11.
Pray, L., & Llieva, V. (2011). Strategies for success: Links to increased mathematics achievement scores of English-language learners. Teacher Education and Practice, 24, 30-45.
Ramirez, G., Chen, X., Geva, E., & Kiefer, H. (2010). Morphological awareness in Spanish-speaking English language learners: Within and cross-language effects on word reading. Reading and Writing, 23, 337-358.
Rogers, L. O., Zosuls, K. M., Halim, M. L., Ruble, D., Hughes, D., & Fuligni, A. (2012). Meaning making in middle childhood: An exploration of the meaning of ethnic identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(2), 99-108
Sarnecka, B. W., Negen, J., & Goldman, M. C. (2018). Early number knowledge in dual-language learners from low-SES households. In D. B. Berch, D. C. Geary, & K. M. Koepke (Eds.), Language and culture in mathematical cognition (pp. 197-228). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812574-8.00009-2
Swanson, H. L., Orosco, M. J., & Lussier, C. M. (2015). Growth in literacy, cognition, and working memory in English language learners. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 132, 155-188.
Wagner, K., Kimura, K., Cheung, P., & Barner, D. (2015). Why is number word learning hard? Evidence from bilingual learners. Cognitive Psychology, 83, 1-21.
Warren, E., Harris, K., & Miller, J. (2014). Supporting young ESL students from disadvantaged contexts in their engagement with mathematics: Teachers' pedagogical challenges. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning, 9(1), 10-25.
Williams, C., & Lowrance-Faulhaber, E. (2018). Writing in young bilingual children: Review of research. Journal of Second Language Writing, 42, 58-69.
Wilson, J., & Smith, E. (2022). Increasing multilingual learners ' access in mathematics. Mathematics Teacher: Learning and Teaching PK-12, 115(2), 104-112.
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