Return to References: Sense of Belonging factor page.
Numerous measures exist to gain a full picture of a student's learning strengths and challenges. Following are examples of measures used to assess this Learner Factor. These measures should be administered and interpreted by experienced professionals.
Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS): (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2004): Measures ethnic identity exploration, resolution, and affirmation in adolescents and adults.
Panorama's Sense of School Belonging Scale: (Gehlbach, 2015): A brief survey measuring how much students feel they are valued members of the school community.
Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2018). What Schools Need to Know About Fostering School Belonging: A Meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 30(1), 1–34.
Alexander-Passe, N. (2015). The dyslexia experience: Difference, disclosure, labelling, discrimination and stigma. Asia Pacific Journal of Developmental Differences, 2(2), 202-233.
Backhaus, I., Lipson, S. K., Fisher, L. B., Kawachi, I., & Pedrelli, P. (2019). Sexual assault, sense of belonging, depression and suicidality among LGBQ and heterosexual college students. Journal of American College Health, 1-9.
Berman, S. L., Montgomery, M. J., & Ratner, K. (2020). Trauma and identity: A reciprocal relationship? Journal of Adolescence, 79, 275–278.
Boston, C., & Warren, S. R. (2017). The effects of belonging and racial identity on urban African American high school students' achievement. Journal of Urban Learning, Teaching, and Research, 13, 26–33.
Boutte, G. S., Lopez-Robertson, J., & Powers-Costello, E. (2011). Moving beyond colorblindness in early childhood classrooms. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(5), 335–342.
Brice, P., & Strauss, G. (2016). Deaf adolescents in a hearing world: A review of factors affecting psychosocial adaptation. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 6(7), 67–76.
Butler-Barnes, S. T., Leath, S., Williams, A., Byrd, C., Carter, R., & Chavous, T. M. (2018). Promoting resilience among African American girls: Racial identity as a protective factor. Child Development, 89(6), e552–e571.
Burnett, M., McBride, M. S., Green, M. N., & Cooper, S. M. (2022). “When I think of Black girls, I think of opportunities”: Black Girls' Identity Development and the Protective Role of Parental Socialization in Educational Settings. Frontiers in Psychology, 4173.
Calzo, J. P., Antonucci, T. C., May, Vickie, M., & Cochran, S. D. (2011). Retrospective recall of sexual orientation identity development among gay, lesbian, and bisexual adults. Developmental Psychology, 47(6), 1658–1673.
Daley, S. G., & Rappolt-Schlichtmann, G. (2018). Stigma consciousness among adolescents with learning disabilities: Considering individual experiences of being stereotyped. Learning Disability Quarterly, 41(4), 200–212.
DeNicolo, C. P., Yu, M., Crowley, C. B., & Gabel, S. L. (2017). Reimagining critical care and problematizing sense of school belonging as a response to inequality for immigrants and children of immigrants. Review of Research in Education, 41(1), 500–530.
DiAngelo, R. (2011). White fragility. International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 3, 54–70.
Fisher, B. W., Dawson-Edwards, C., Higgins, E. M., & Swartz, K. (2020). Who belongs in school? Examining the link between Black and White racial disparities in sense of school belonging and suspension. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(5), 1481–1499.
Fong, C. J., Alejandro, A. J., Krou, M. R., Segovia, J., & Johnston-Ashton, K. (2019). Ya'at'eeh: Race-reimaged belongingness factors, academic outcomes, and goal pursuits among Indigenous community college students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101805.
Fuligni, A. J., & Tsai, K. M. (2015). Developmental flexibility in the age of globalization: Autonomy and identity development among immigrant adolescents. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 411–431.
Gehlbach, H. (2015). User Guide: Panorama Student Survey. Boston: Panorama Education. Retrieved from https://www.panoramaed.com/panorama-student-survey
Gopalan, M., & Brady, S. T. (2020). College students' sense of belonging: A national perspective. Educational Researcher, 49(2), 134–137.
Goodman, E., Huang, B., Schafer-Kalkhoff, T., & Adler, N. E. (2007). Perceived socioeconomic status: a new type of identity that influences adolescents' self-rated health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(5), 479-487.
Gray, D. L. L., Hope, E. C., & Matthews, J. S. (2018). Black and belonging at school: A case for interpersonal, instructional, and institutional opportunity structures. Educational Psychologist, 53(2), 97–113.
Henning, J. A., Ballen, C. J., Molina, S. A., & Cotner, S. (2019). Hidden identities shape student perceptions of active learning environments. Frontiers in Education, 4, 129.
Hoffman, A. J., Kurtz-Costes, B., Rowley, S. J., & Adams, E. A. (2017). Bidirectional influence between African American mothers' and children's racial centrality from elementary through high school. Developmental Psychology, 53(6), 1130–1141.
Horowitz, E., Oyserman, D., Dehghani, M., & Sorensen, N. (2020). Do you need a roadmap or can someone give you directions: When school-focused possible identities change so do academic trajectories. Journal of Adolescence, 79, 26–38.
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770.
Huynh, V. W., & Gillen-O'Neel, C. (2016). Discrimination and sleep: The protective role of school belonging. Youth and Society, 48(5), 649–672.
Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2016). Emotion, sociality, and the brain's default mode network: Insights for educational practice and policy. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 211–219.
Immordino-Yang, M. H., Darling-Hammond, L., & Krone, C. (2018). The brain basis for integrated social, emotional, and academic development: How emotions and social relationships drive learning. Aspen Institute.
Jessup, G., Bundy, A. C., Broom, A., & Hancock, N. (2018). Fitting in or feeling excluded: The experiences of high school students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 112(3), 261–273.
Jose, P. E., Ryan, N., & Pryor, J. (2012). Does social connectedness promote a greater sense of well-being in adolescence over time? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(2), 235–251.
Korpershoek, H., Canrinus, E. T., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & de Boer, H. (2020). The relationships between school belonging and students' motivational, social-emotional, behavioural, and academic outcomes in secondary education: a meta-analytic review. Research Papers in Education, 35(6), 641–680.
Kirkpatrick, K. M. (2020). Adolescents with chronic medical conditions and high school completion: The importance of perceived school belonging. Continuity in Education, 1(1).
Lessard, L. M., & Juvonen, J. (2020). Weight stigma in the school setting: The role of inclusive weight climate—A commentary. Journal of School Health, 90(7), 507–510.
Loi, N. M., Thorsteinsson, E. B., & Ebdell, E. (2020). Social comparison as a potential moderator of the relationship between social media use and psychological wellbeing in young adults.
Marsh, L. T. S., & Noguera, P. A. (2018). Beyond stigma and stereotypes: An ethnographic study on the effects of school-imposed labeling on black males in an urban charter school. Urban Review, 50(3), 447–477.
Matthews, J. S., Banerjee, M., & Lauermann, F. (2014). Academic identity formation and motivation among ethnic minority adolescents: The role of the “self” between internal and external perceptions of identity. Child Development, 85(6), 2355-2373.
Matthews, J. S., & López, F. (2020). Race-reimaging educational psychology research: Investigating constructs through the lens of race and culture. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101878.
McIlroy, G., & Storbeck, C. (2011). Development of deaf identity: An ethnographic study. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16(4), 494-511.
Michikyan, M., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2016). Adolescent media and social media use: Implications for development. Journal of Adolescent Research, 31(4), 411–414.
Morris, K. S., Seaton, E. K., Iida, M., & Johnson, S. L. (2020). Racial discrimination stress, school belonging, and school racial composition on academic attitudes and beliefs among black youth. Social Sciences, 9(11), 1–20.
Muhammad, G. E. (2012). Creating spaces for Black adolescent girls to “write it out!”. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(3), 203-211.
Muhammad, G. E. (2018). A plea for identity and criticality: Reframing literacy learning standards through a four-layered model. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 62(2), 137-142.
Murphy, M., & Zirkel, S. (2015). Race and belonging in school: How anticipated and experienced belonging affect choice, persistence, and performance. Teachers College Record, 117(12).
Napoli, M., Marsiglia, F. F., & Kulis, S. (2003). Sense of belonging in school as a protective factor against drug abuse among Native American urban adolescents. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 3(2), 25-41.
Nesi, J., & Prinstein, M. J. (2015). Using social media for social comparison and feedback-seeking: Gender and popularity moderate associations with depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(8), 1427-1438.
Oh, J. S., & Fuligni, A. J. (2010). The role of heritage language development in the ethnic identity and family relationships of adolescents from immigrant backgrounds. Social Development, 19(1), 202–220.
Okele, Ndidi, A., Howard, Lionel, C., Kurtz-Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2009). Academic race stereotypes, academic self-concept, and racial centrality in African American youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 35(3), 366–387.
Oyserman, D., Lewis, N. A., Yan, V. X., Fisher, O., O'Donnell, S. C., & Horowitz, E. (2017). An identity-based motivation framework for self-regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 28(2–3), 139–147.
Panorama Education.(2015). User Guide: Panorama Student Survey. https://www.panoramaed.com/panorama-student-survey
Phinney, J. S., & Chavira, V. (1992). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: An exploratory longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 15(3), 271-281.
Quintana, S. M., & Mckown, C. (2012). Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child. Wiley.
Richardson, P. W., & Eccles, J. S. (2007). Rewards of reading: Toward the development of possible selves and identities. Journal of Educational Research, 46(6), 341–356.
Rivas-Drake, D., Hughes, D., & Way, N. (2009). A preliminary analysis of associations among ethnic-racial socialization, ethnic discrimination, and ethnic identity among urban sixth graders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(3), 558–584.
Rivas-Drake, D., Lozada, F. T., Pinetta, B. J., & Jagers, R. J. (2020). School-based social-emotional learning and ethnic-racial identity among African American and Latino adolescents. Youth and Society, 52(7), 1331–1354.
Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., … Sellers, R. M. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85(1), 40–57.
Rivas-Drake, D., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Schaefer, D. R., & Medina, M. (2017). Ethnic-racial identity and friendships in early adolescence. Child Development, 88(3), 710–724.
Seaton, Elanor, K., Yip, T., & Sellers, R. M. (2009). A longitudinal examination of racial identity and racial discrimination among African American adolescents. Child Development, 80(2), 406–417.
Seo, E., Shen, Y., & Benner, A. D. (2019). The paradox of positive self-concept and low achievement among Black and Latinx youth: A test of psychological explanations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101796.
Shifrer, D. (2013). Stigma of a label: Educational expectations for high school students labeled with learning disabilities. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 54(4), 462-480.
Sutherland, L. M. (2005). Black adolescent girls' use of literacy practices to negotiate boundaries of ascribed identity. Journal of Literacy Research, 37(3), 365-406.
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Timeo, S., Riva, P., & Paladino, M. P. (2020). Being liked or not being liked: A study on social- media exclusion in a preadolescent population. Journal of Adolescence, 80, 173-181.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Fine, M. A. (2004). Examining ethnic identity among Mexican-origin adolescents living in the United States. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 26(1), 36–59.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Tynes, B. M., Toomey, Russell, B., Williams, D. R., & Mitchell, K. J. (2015). Latino adolescents' perceived discrimination in online and offline settings: An examination of cultural risk and protective factors. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 87–100.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Yazedjian, A. & Bámaca-Gómez, M. Y. (2004). Developing the ethnic identity scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4, 9-38.
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Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(4), 206–222.
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Waterman, A. S. (2020). “Now what do I do?“: Toward a conceptual understanding of the effects of traumatic events on identity functioning. Journal of Adolescence, 79, 59–69.
Watson, P. W. S. J., Alansari, M., Worrell, F. C., & Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2020). Ethnic-racial identity, relatedness, and school belonging for adolescent New Zealanders: does student gender make a difference? Social Psychology of Education, 23(4), 979–1002.
Weisz, B. M., Quinn, D. M., & Williams, M. K. (2015). Out and healthy: Being more “out” about a concealable stigmatized identity may boost the health benefits of social support. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(12), 1–10.
Yates, N., & Patall, E. A. (2021). Exploring the relationship between Black high school students' external regulation and intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 45(2), 146-158.