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Literacy 4-6

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Literacy 4-6 > Factors > Phonological Processing

Phonological Processing

Factor Connections

Hover to see how factors connect to Phonological Processing. Then click connected factors to explore strategies related to multiple factors.

How Phonological Processing connects to...

Phonological Processing is being able to rapidly detect and understand sounds in spoken and written words. These skills help students decode full words, a key step to developing strong spoken and written language abilities. In fact, the development of Phonological Processing and literacy skills is reciprocal: the development of one set of skills influences the development of the other.

Main Ideas

Phonological Processing involves a variety of skills:

  • Phonological Awareness: Understanding the sounds that form a language (phonemes) and the sound structure of a language. This also includes the ability to manipulate and analyze this structure (e.g., discriminating whether words rhyme, understanding how sounds can be manipulated to form new words);
  • Phonological Short-term Memory: Temporarily storing, but not manipulating, phonological information;
  • Phonological Working Memory: Temporarily storing and manipulating phonemes in Short- and Long-term Memory during tasks that require Phonological Awareness;
  • Phonological Retrieval: The ability to recall the speech sounds that are associated with written letters of a language; and
  • Phonemic Awareness: The ability to manipulate phonemes (speech sounds like /p/ or /b/), which are the smallest units of sounds in language.

Dyslexia is typically defined by difficulty with Phonological Awareness, which contributes to difficulties with many aspects of reading development, including Decoding. Early detection and treatment for dyslexia or difficulties with Phonological Awareness can facilitate better learning and social-emotional outcomes for students, including increased reading achievement and confidence surrounding literacy and academic activities.

Learner Factor Interactions

  • Auditory Processing: The process of detecting sound and interpreting it as meaningful input
    • Auditory Processing is necessary for speech perception and is therefore important for Phonological Processing skills (Poldrack et al., 2001).
  • Foundational Writing Skills: The ability to produce legible and accurate spelling and punctuation with sufficient writing speed. Mastering these skills supports the foundational skill of writing fluency so that the student can focus more on the content they want to convey rather than on the details of spelling and punctuation.
    • Strong Phonological Processing skills help children develop spelling, a Foundational Writing Skill (Savage et al., 2005).
  • Hearing: The ability to hear sounds in the typical human range of approximately 20 - 20,000 Hz
    • Depending on the nature of their early language exposure, Phonological Processing skills can be negatively impacted in students with hearing loss (Norbury et al., 2002).
  • Literacy Environment: The environment and print exposure a student's family, school, and community provide to build literacy skills
    • Students with poor reading skills often have a weak connection between processing orthographic and phonological information, which leads to lower levels of independent reading, resulting in less print exposure (Compton, 2002).
  • Morphological Knowledge: Processing and understanding linguistic units, including root words, prefixes, suffixes, intonations, and stress, that all convey meaning
    • Morphological Knowledge includes an understanding of stress and phonological changes that can occur, such as the difference in pronunciation between the root word “sign” and “signature” (Deacon & Kirby, 2004).
  • Motivation: The desire that guides behavior
    • Children with poor Phonological Processing skills tend to read less for pleasure, which then contributes to slower development of Phonological Processing skills (Compton, 2002).
  • Orthographic Processing: The ability to mentally create, store, and retrieve the visual representations of written words
    • Decoding is an important part of Orthographic Processing and refers to the ability to apply knowledge of relationships between letters and speech sounds to properly recognize and pronounce words. Decoding is dependent on several fundamental skills, including Phonological Processing (Nagy et al., 2006). Furthermore, students with poor reading skills often have a weak connection between processing orthographic and phonological information, which leads to lower levels of independent reading, resulting in lower Vocabulary and less print exposure (Compton, 2002).
  • Primary Language: The child's native language they have been exposed to from birth
    • Simultaneous bilinguals show an advantage in phonological awareness, a component of Phonological Processing (Jasinska & Petitto, 2018).
  • Short-term Memory: The ability to hold information for a short period of time
    • Phonological Short-term Memory is a part of Phonological Processing and involves temporarily storing phonological information (Hanten & Martin, 2000).
  • Speed of Processing: The time it takes to perceive information, process it, and formulate or enact a response
    • Faster Speed of Processing allows for faster and more efficient Phonological Processing (Bowey et al., 2004).
  • Vocabulary: Includes both the lexical representations of stored sounds (word forms) and the semantic meaning associated with each of those stored sounds
    • Phonological Processing and awareness are important components of Vocabulary growth (Morra & Camba, 2009). Additionally, students with poor reading skills often have a weak connection between processing orthographic and phonological information, which limits Vocabulary growth (Compton, 2002).
  • Working Memory: The type of memory that allows a person to temporarily hold and manipulate information for use in many complex cognitive processes
    • Phonological processing is required for phonological Working Memory, which processes spoken and written information through temporary storage and repetition (Baddeley, 2000).
  • Auditory Processing:
    • Learners with dyslexia may demonstrate differences in Auditory Processing abilities (Hämäläinen et al., 2013; Gu).
  • Cognitive Flexibility:
    • Students who perform better on measures of Cognitive Flexibility also show better performance on tasks tapping Phonological Processing skills, such as Decoding nonsense words (Best et al., 2011).

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